AP®︎ U.S. Government & Politics: Unit 5 Flashcards

The 1868 amendment granting citizenship to persons born or naturalized in the United States and providing due-process and equal-protection guarantees

The 1870 amendment prohibiting denial or abridgment of voting rights because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude

The 1913 amendment replacing selection of U.S. senators by state legislatures with direct election by voters

The 1920 amendment prohibiting denial or abridgment of voting rights on account of sex, granting women nationwide voting rights

The 1964 amendment prohibiting poll taxes or other voting taxes in federal elections

The 1971 amendment prohibiting age-based denial of voting rights to citizens 18 or older, lowering the voting age from 21 to 18

Federal legislation enforcing the Fifteenth Amendment by prohibiting racial discrimination in voting and targeting literacy tests and similar suppression tactics

Federal law requiring covered states to offer registration through driver’s-license and certain public-agency transactions and to provide mail registration for federal elections

Choosing the candidate or party perceived to best serve the voter's interests after comparing expected costs, benefits, or preferences

Choosing whether to reward or punish an incumbent or governing party based on its past performance and recent conditions

Choosing based on predictions about a candidate's or party's future performance, policies, or leadership

Voting for the full slate of one political party's candidates across the contests on a ballot

The extent to which people entitled or able to participate in an election actually cast ballots

An institutional rule or practical condition that increases the time, effort, uncertainty, or expense required to vote

The belief that political participation can matter

The process by which an eligible citizen enrolls with election officials to become qualified to vote

State requirements that voters present specified identification, potentially increasing voting costs for eligible people who lack acceptable documents

Receiving and returning a ballot without appearing at an Election Day polling place

Casting and returning a ballot by mail rather than voting at an Election Day polling place

Casting a ballot at a designated location before Election Day, expanding the available times for voting

A system using information already given to a government agency to register eligible citizens unless they decline

A procedure allowing an eligible citizen to register and vote during the voting period rather than meeting an earlier deadline

Turnout is generally higher in presidential elections because they receive more attention, mobilization, and perceived importance than midterms

A person’s psychological attachment to a political party and one of the strongest predictors of candidate choice

A voter’s general liberal, conservative, or moderate outlook, used to compare candidates and platforms with the voter’s own views

A channel through which individuals communicate political preferences to policymakers; principal examples are political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media

An organization that seeks to influence public policy by electing candidates under its label and organizing those officials in government

An organization that advances shared interests by influencing officials and policy, ordinarily without nominating candidates to control government

Formal processes through which citizens choose public officials and communicate political preferences to government

Connects citizens and government by transmitting political information to the public and communicating public concerns and reactions to policymakers

A party’s formal statement of policy goals, principles, and priorities; it is politically influential but not legally binding

Party efforts to encourage political action, especially registration and voting, usually among likely supporters

The process by which parties identify, encourage, and support people who can run for public office

Coordinating the people, money, messages, data, and activities needed to help candidates win elections

Party leaders’ coordination of members, legislative strategy, agenda priorities, negotiations, and public messaging

The collection of social, regional, economic, ideological, and interest-based groups that regularly support a political party

A campaign focused on a candidate’s personal characteristics, record, and positions rather than primarily on the party, weakening party control over nominations and messages

An election in which voter support undergoes a lasting realignment between political parties

A substantial, durable shift in the groups, regions, or interests supporting political parties, creating a new pattern of party competition

A decline in durable party loyalties as more voters become independent or less consistently attached to either major party

Digital tools and communication systems campaigns use to raise money, manage data, target messages, organize supporters, and mobilize voters

Combining voter, contact, donation, survey, and demographic information to estimate support and turnout and target persuasion or mobilization efforts

Using voter data to divide the electorate into narrow segments and deliver messages or requests tailored to predicted interests and behavior

An electoral arrangement in which the top finisher receives the entire office or electoral prize and losing candidates receive none

An electoral system that allocates legislative seats to parties roughly in proportion to their shares of the vote

A geographic constituency that elects one officeholder

A political system in which two major parties consistently dominate elections and government

A political party other than the Democratic and Republican major parties

A candidate who runs without the nomination of any political party

When a minor candidate draws enough likely support from one major-party candidate to allow the other major-party candidate to win

A major party’s adoption of popular third-party positions, reducing the third party’s distinctive appeal and voter base

Direct communication with legislators, staff, executive officials, or agencies to influence public policy through information and persuasion

Mobilizing constituents or the public to contact officials and create political pressure for a policy position

A written submission by a nonparty, or “friend of the court,” offering arguments or information for judges to consider

A stable, mutually beneficial relationship among an interest group, a congressional committee or subcommittee, and a bureaucratic agency

A broad, fluid collection of officials, interest groups, researchers, experts, and others who cooperate or compete over a policy area

A major interest group that represents older Americans and advocates on issues such as Social Security, Medicare, health care, and retirement

The difficulty of organizing and funding collective action because individuals can benefit from a group’s work without contributing to it

Goods or services available only to members, offered to encourage people to join and support an interest group

An organized group focused on one narrow policy concern or closely connected set of concerns

An organization representing an occupation or field that uses member interests and specialized expertise to influence public policy

A movement seeking political change based on a broad set of ideas about government or society

Sustained collective action seeking to change or resist changes to social practices, attitudes, institutions, and public policy

A movement using visible collective action, such as marches, boycotts, strikes, sit-ins, or civil disobedience, to pressure officials or the public

Reelection benefits of holding office, including name recognition, media attention, the presidency’s prestige, established campaign networks, and a record of accomplishments

Primary in which voters may participate without previously registering as members of the party holding the election

Primary in which participation is restricted to voters registered with the party holding the election

Meeting in which party members discuss candidates and participate in selecting candidates, choosing delegates, or deciding party policy

Party meeting at which delegates formally nominate the presidential and vice-presidential candidates, promote the platform, and unite the party for the general election

Election between party nominees and qualifying independent candidates in which voters legally choose pledged slates of presidential electors

Constitutional system that formally elects the president and vice president; each state receives electors equal to its representatives plus senators, the District of Columbia receives three, and 270 of 538 votes are required when all electors are appointed

Person appointed to cast a state’s formal Electoral College votes for president and vice president

The formal votes cast for president and vice president by electors, with each state receiving a number equal to its House members plus senators

Total presidential votes cast nationwide, which has no independent constitutional role in determining the winner

Competitive state that either major-party presidential candidate has a realistic chance of winning

An election for the House or Senate, with all House seats and about one-third of Senate seats contested every two years

A congressional election halfway through a president’s term, with no presidential race, all House seats, and about one-third of Senate seats on the ballot

The boost same-party congressional candidates receive when a popular presidential candidate attracts and mobilizes supportive voters

Specialists who make campaigns more efficient through expertise in strategy, messaging, polling, fundraising, media, data, and fieldwork but increase costs and may encourage scripted or short-term tactics

The continuous use by officeholders of campaign-style messaging, fundraising, polling, and public relations throughout their terms

The organized solicitation and collection of money to pay for campaign staff, communication, travel, voter outreach, and other electoral activities

Using digital platforms for rapid direct communication, targeted advertising, fundraising, and volunteer organization, with risks including misinformation, echo chambers, and privacy concerns

Federal campaign-finance law establishing disclosure requirements, contribution limits, public presidential financing, and the Federal Election Commission

The federal agency that administers campaign-finance law, receives financial reports, issues regulations and advisory opinions, and investigates alleged violations

Federal law that banned national-party soft money, regulated electioneering communications, and required candidates to approve their authorized broadcast advertisements

Money formerly raised by political parties outside federal limits for purported nonfederal or party-building activities rather than a specific federal candidate

Campaign money raised and spent under federal limits, source restrictions, and disclosure requirements, including direct contributions to federal candidates and traditional PACs

BCRA requirement that a candidate identify themself and accept responsibility for an authorized radio or television advertisement: “I’m [name], and I approve this message.”

An organization that raises and spends money to influence elections, often on behalf of business, labor, ideological, professional, or single-issue interests

A committee that may raise and spend unlimited funds independently but may not contribute directly to candidates or coordinate expenditures with campaigns

Spending that expressly supports or opposes a clearly identified candidate without coordination with the candidate, campaign, or party acting for the candidate

Legal caps on how much an individual or organization may give directly to a candidate, party, or political committee

The 1976 ruling that upheld contribution limits and disclosure rules but struck down most expenditure limits because political spending is protected First Amendment expression

First Amendment ruling that BCRA could not prohibit corporate or union independent expenditures; direct-contribution bans, disclosure rules, and the national-party soft-money ban remained

The First Amendment principle that spending money to communicate political views is a form of protected expression, though direct contributions may be limited to prevent corruption

Media influence over which political issues citizens notice and regard as important through selection, prominence, repetition, and sustained coverage

Sustained reporting that examines evidence and sources to uncover and verify information not already public or easily available

Election coverage centered on polling, popularity, standings, momentum, strategy, and who is winning rather than candidates’ qualifications and policy platforms

The scientific measurement of a population’s political attitudes by questioning a representative sample

News organizations, editors, and producers that control which events become news, which sources are heard, and how much attention stories receive

The media’s scrutiny and exposure of misconduct by government officials and other powerful institutions on behalf of the public

A perceived or actual pattern in selecting, presenting, or interpreting political information that favors particular perspectives or outcomes

Media sources that consistently appeal to audiences associated with one party or side of the political spectrum

Control of many media outlets by relatively few owners, potentially reducing independent reporting and viewpoint diversity

Delivering specialized media content to a limited audience defined by particular interests, demographics, or political views

Choosing information sources that are consistent with one’s existing interests or political views

An information environment where like-minded people repeatedly circulate similar claims while excluding or dismissing contrary information

A personalized information environment in which algorithms repeatedly show users content matching their behavior and views while limiting exposure to alternatives

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information in ways that confirm existing beliefs

Media that select content in response to what audiences will watch, read, share, subscribe to, or financially support

The extent to which a source can reasonably be considered accurate, knowledgeable, transparent, and trustworthy

False or inaccurate information spread regardless of whether the person sharing it intends to deceive

False information deliberately created or distributed to mislead