Topic 4.2 Notes – Objectives of Election Rules

What Election Rules Do

Election rules answer three big questions in every system:

• Who can compete on the ballot
• What it takes to win an election
• How representation and accountability are organized after the election

That is why election rules tell you a lot about the regime itself. A democratic system may use rules to widen participation and reduce fraud. An authoritarian or hybrid system may still hold elections, but use rules to filter opposition and protect elites.

The exam loves this idea. The same formal rule can do different political jobs depending on context.

• Ballot access means who is allowed on the ballot.
• Winning rule means how a candidate actually wins, such as plurality, majority, runoff, or geographic spread.
• Representation rule means how votes become seats, such as SMD, PR, mixed systems, or appointments.
• Timing rule means when elections happen and how often voters can respond.

Representation Rules in Legislatures

Proportional representation

Under proportional representation, parties get seats roughly based on vote share, usually in multimember districts. If a party wins 20 percent of the vote, it can win about 20 percent of seats.

Proportional representation in a multimember district

That is the basic idea in the diagram here. A party with 60 percent of the vote gets about 60 percent of the seats, and a party with 40 percent gets about 40 percent.

PR tends to:

• increase the number of parties in the legislature
• help women and minority candidates, especially through party lists and quotas
• represent voters whose support is spread out, not concentrated in one district

Examples:

• Mexico Chamber of Deputies uses a mixed system with 300 SMD seats and 200 PR seats. Gender rules on party nominations increased women’s representation.
• Russia State Duma also uses a mixed system. Its PR threshold can block small parties and help United Russia, so PR there does not automatically mean open competition.

Single-member district plurality

In single-member district plurality, one district elects one representative, and the candidate with the most votes wins.

This tends to:

• push politics toward two-party competition through Duverger’s law
• create strong constituency service
• make one person clearly accountable for a place

Examples:

• UK House of Commons uses classic FPTP. One constituency elects one MP.
• Regional parties can still win if support is concentrated. The SNP is the standard example.
• Nigeria House of Representatives also uses SMD districts tied to population.

Mixed systems and appointments

Mixed systems combine local district representatives with broader PR seats. In this course, Mexico and Russia are the main examples.

Appointments can widen expertise or protect elites:

• UK House of Lords members are formally appointed by the monarch on advice from the PM and an independent commission. That can add expertise, but the chamber has weak democratic legitimacy.
• Iran Guardian Council has half appointed by the Supreme Leader and half chosen through judiciary nominees approved by the Majles. This protects regime ideology.
• Russia Federation Council members are selected by regional executives and legislatures, not directly elected, which strengthens elite and central influence.

Rules for Winning Presidential Elections

Presidential systems do not all define victory the same way.

Plurality

A plurality winner just needs more votes than anyone else.

• Mexico’s president is elected by plurality of the national popular vote.
• That creates a fast, one-round result, but no majority is required.

Majority and runoff

Some systems want a winner with over 50 percent.

1. Candidates compete in round one.
2. If nobody gets 50%+, the top two advance.
3. One of those two wins round two with a majority.

• Iran and Russia use this system.
• It gives the winner a formal national mandate.
• On the exam, be careful. A mandate means less when real competition is restricted.

Geographic distribution requirement

Nigeria adds a territorial rule. A candidate must:

• win the most votes nationwide
• get 25 percent in two-thirds of the states

That reflects Nigeria’s federal system and major regional, ethnic, and religious cleavages. It pushes candidates to build broad coalitions.

Ballot Access, Group Representation, and Election Timing

Who gets to run matters as much as who gets to vote.

• Iran’s Guardian Council vets candidates and often excludes reformists and critics. Elections happen, but competition is narrowed.
• Mexico’s INE (formerly IFE) was created during democratic transition to reduce fraud and manipulation.
• Nigeria’s INEC is also an independent commission meant to improve credibility, even though irregularities still happen.

In Iran, that vetting power fits into a broader system where elected offices operate alongside unelected institutions.

Rules also shape which groups get represented:

• PR and lower thresholds help smaller parties, women, and minorities.
• SMD can hurt dispersed groups but help concentrated regional groups.
• Mexico’s gender quotas and party-list rules boosted women’s representation.
• Iran’s Majles reserves seats for recognized religious minorities: 2 Armenian Christians, 1 Assyrian/Chaldean Christian seat, 1 Jew, 1 Zoroastrian.
• Russia’s threshold changes and shifts between PR and mixed systems changed opportunities for minor and regional parties.
• Nigeria’s presidential distribution rule indirectly broadens ethnic and regional inclusion.

Legislative terms also shape accountability:

• UK House of Commons up to 5 years, with possible early dissolution
• Mexico Chamber 3 years, Senate 6 years
• Nigeria both chambers 4 years
• Iran Majles 4 years
• Russia Duma 5 years
• China NPC 5 years and indirectly elected

Shorter terms mean voters can reward or punish officials more often. Longer terms give more continuity.