AP®︎ Human Geography: Unit 7 Flashcards

The late-1700s transformation, beginning in Great Britain, from agriculture and hand production to machine-powered factories, fossil-fuel energy, and large-scale manufacturing

Great Britain, where abundant coal and iron, capital, labor, transportation networks, markets, and agricultural change supported the Industrial Revolution's beginnings in the late 1700s

A transformation in farming through innovations such as enclosure, crop rotation, selective breeding, and mechanization that increased food production and freed labor for industrial work

A preindustrial system in which merchants supplied raw materials to rural households that made goods by hand for later collection and sale

A production system that concentrates workers, machinery, energy, and supervision in one location for faster, larger-scale output

The replacement or supplementation of human and animal labor with machines to increase the speed, scale, and productivity of production

A machine that converts steam energy into mechanical power and enabled factories, mines, railroads, and ships to operate more efficiently and independently of waterpower

The growing importance of mechanized manufacturing and the resulting reorganization of labor, settlement, transportation, social classes, and connections between places

The growth in the proportion of people living in cities and the expansion of urban areas, often driven by migration and industrial employment

The establishment and maintenance of political control over another territory and its people, often involving direct administration and economic exploitation

The policy or process by which a state extends political, military, or economic power over other places, with or without direct colonial rule

Economic activities that obtain raw materials directly from nature, such as agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, and extraction

Economic activities that transform raw materials into usable products through manufacturing, processing, construction, or energy generation

Economic activities that provide services rather than extracting raw materials or manufacturing goods

Economic activities centered on creating, processing, managing, and communicating specialized information and knowledge

The highest levels of leadership, policy formation, and decision-making that direct major organizations or institutions

A location where cargo is transferred from one mode of transportation to another

The use of standardized containers that carry cargo among ships, trains, and trucks without unloading the individual goods inside

Alfred Weber’s theory that firms locate where the combined costs of transportation, labor, and agglomeration are lowest

An industry whose finished product weighs less or occupies less volume than its inputs, favoring locations near raw materials

An industry whose finished product gains weight or volume during production, favoring locations near its market

An industry that locates near raw materials because they are fixed, bulky, heavy, perishable, or costly to transport

An industry that locates near customers because its finished goods are perishable, fragile, costly to transport, or responsive to local demand

An industry whose location is strongly influenced by the cost, availability, productivity, or specialized skills of workers

An industry with few transportation constraints because its inputs and outputs are lightweight, high-value, widely available, or electronic

The monetary value of final goods and services produced within a state's borders during a specified period, regardless of ownership

The value of goods and services produced by a state's residents and firms, including their production abroad; GNP = GDP + net factor income from abroad

The total primary income received by a state's residents and businesses, including net income from abroad, divided by the state's population

The proportions of employment or economic output in different sectors, commonly shifting from primary toward secondary and then service and knowledge activities with development

Legally recognized, regulated, and recorded economic activity generally subject to taxation, labor rules, licensing, and recordkeeping

Economic activity operating outside some or all government registration, taxation, and regulation and therefore often missing from official statistics

The way income is divided among a population, revealing inequalities concealed by per capita averages

A measure of income inequality based on the area between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality; 0 indicates perfect equality and 1, or 100, indicates maximum inequality

The average number of children a woman would be expected to have during her childbearing years if current age-specific fertility rates continued

The number of deaths of children younger than one year per 1,000 live births in a given year

The percentage of a specified population able to read and write with basic understanding, commonly measured for people age 15 and older

The average number of years a newborn is expected to live if current mortality patterns continue

A composite index combining life expectancy, schooling, and PPP-adjusted GNI per capita; values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater human development

A composite index of gender disadvantage in reproductive health, empowerment, and labor-market participation; values closer to 1 indicate greater inequality

Equal representation or outcomes for women and men in a specified area, such as enrollment, employment, wages, or political representation

The difference between women's and men's earnings, reflecting factors such as occupations, hours, caregiving, advancement, and discrimination

Financial services for underserved borrowers, including microloans, savings, insurance, payment services, and financial education

A small loan to a borrower who may lack the income, credit history, or collateral required by a conventional bank, often used to start or expand a small business

A linear model in which countries develop through five stages as investment, technology, industrialization, productivity, and consumption increase

An economy dominated by subsistence agriculture, primary-sector work, limited technology, low productivity, and little infrastructure

Investment, infrastructure, institutions, agricultural surpluses, and emerging industries prepare an economy for sustained industrial growth

Rapid, self-sustaining industrialization in which expanding industries stimulate broader investment, urbanization, and structural change

Industrialization diversifies, technology and skilled labor expand, productivity rises, and the economy produces a broad range of goods and services

A diversified, high-productivity economy characterized by extensive service employment, high incomes, and mass demand for consumer goods and services

A theory that explains uneven development through a capitalist world economy divided into unequal core, semi-periphery, and periphery positions

The powerful world-system position specializing in high-value production, finance, technology, management, and advanced services

The intermediate world-system position that is influenced by the core while exercising economic influence over peripheral areas

The less powerful world-system position commonly supplying raw materials, low-wage labor, or low-value goods under relatively unfavorable terms

A theory that unequal reliance on wealthier countries, foreign firms, markets, capital, and technology can transfer wealth outward and reproduce underdevelopment

Heavy reliance on exporting a small number of primary commodities, making an economy vulnerable to volatile prices and a narrow revenue base

A trade relationship in which one place's supply of a good, resource, or service corresponds to another place's effective demand

The ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another producer

An economic approach favoring markets, private enterprise, competition, and international trade while reducing state ownership and many government restrictions

The movement of goods and services across borders with few tariffs, quotas, or comparable restrictions

An agreement among states to reduce tariffs and other barriers to trade between them

A group of states that coordinates trade policy or reduces trade barriers within a geographic region

A European regional organization whose single market and institutions promote economic and political integration among member states

The global organization that administers trade agreements, hosts negotiations, monitors policies, and provides procedures for resolving trade disputes

A South American trade bloc established in 1991 to reduce internal barriers, coordinate trade policy, and develop a common regional market

An intergovernmental commodity organization whose oil-exporting members coordinate petroleum policies and may use production targets to influence supply and prices

A tax imposed on an imported good, often used to protect domestic producers, raise revenue, or pressure another government

The use of tariffs, quotas, subsidies, or other trade barriers to shelter domestic economic activity

A crisis in which a government or other major borrower cannot meet repayment obligations without extraordinary assistance or severe adjustment

An international institution that lends to member countries facing serious balance-of-payments or currency problems and provides policy advice

Market-oriented policy changes attached to some international loans to restructure an economy, such as spending cuts, privatization, deregulation, or trade liberalization

A condition in which the economic activities and well-being of places depend on conditions and decisions elsewhere

The increasing worldwide integration of economies, cultures, governments, and societies through expanding flows of goods, capital, people, information, and ideas

The relative decline of manufacturing as a source of employment and economic activity, even when manufacturing output remains high

Contracting work formerly performed within a firm to a separate company, whether domestic or foreign

Moving work to another country, either to a firm’s own facility or to an independent contractor

A substantial change in an economy’s sectoral or spatial organization, such as shifts toward services, automation, or relocated production

A country experiencing rapid manufacturing growth and a transition away from dependence on agriculture or raw-material production

The geographic specialization of economic tasks among countries, with different stages of production assigned according to cost, skill, and other advantages

A designated area where regulations differ from the rest of the country to encourage investment, enterprise, trade, or development

A bounded area where goods may be imported, stored, processed, assembled, or re-exported with reduced tariffs or simplified customs procedures

A zone where imported components are manufactured or assembled into goods intended primarily for export

A Mexican export-processing plant, often near the United States border, that assembles imported components for export

Standardized mass production using assembly lines, large factories, repetitive specialized tasks, and large inventories

Flexible, automated, and geographically dispersed production using varied products, subcontracting, smaller inventories, and global networks

The additional employment, income, and spending generated when an initial economic investment circulates through a regional economy

Reductions in average production cost that occur as output increases and fixed costs are spread across more units

The spatial clustering of related economic activities and institutions

An inventory system in which parts and materials arrive shortly before production needs them, minimizing stored inventory

Industries dependent on scientific research, advanced engineering, skilled labor, and continuing innovation

A concentration of investment and economic activity intended or expected to stimulate development in a wider region

A cluster of high-technology firms, research institutions, universities, investment, and skilled labor that promotes innovation and regional economic growth

Development that meets present needs without compromising future generations’ ability to meet their own needs

Using renewable resources faster than they are replaced or exhausting finite resource stocks

The large-scale purchase and use of standardized goods and services, increasing demand for resources, energy, transportation, and waste disposal

Energy from sources replenished on a human time scale, such as sunlight, wind, moving water, geothermal heat, and biomass

Tourism in natural environments intended to protect those environments while providing jobs and income for local populations

Seventeen nonbinding goals adopted in 2015 to guide and measure progress in human well-being, environmental protection, and sustainable development through 2030