AP®︎ World History: Unit 4 Flashcards

Chinese-origin navigational tool whose magnetized needle indicated direction, helping sailors maintain a heading when landmarks or celestial bodies were unavailable

Classical instrument refined in the Islamic world and adapted for mariners to measure a celestial body’s altitude and estimate latitude

Triangular sail widely used in the Islamic Mediterranean and Indian Ocean worlds that increased maneuverability and enabled ships to tack partly into the wind

Rudder mounted at a ship’s rear that improved steering over a side-mounted steering oar

Small, fast, maneuverable Iberian vessel with a shallow draft and lateen or mixed rigging, especially useful for exploration and coastal reconnaissance

Large, deep-hulled ocean-going vessel with multiple masts and mixed rigging that carried substantial cargo, provisions, crews, and weapons

Late-sixteenth-century Dutch cargo ship with a capacious hull and small crew that lowered shipping costs and efficiently carried bulk goods

The science and practice of making maps and maritime charts, which improved European knowledge of coastlines, ports, and ocean routes

Prevailing tropical winds that generally blow from east to west and helped determine Atlantic sailing routes

Portuguese “turn of the sea”: sailing west or northwest into the Atlantic before turning east to use favorable currents and westerlies on the return to Europe

Portuguese prince who provided sustained royal patronage for African expeditions, geographic knowledge, and commerce, though he did not lead the major voyages

Portuguese explorer who rounded southern Africa in 1488, proving that the Atlantic connected to the Indian Ocean around the continent

Portuguese explorer who rounded Africa and reached Calicut, India, in 1498, giving Portugal direct maritime access to Indian Ocean trade

Genoese mariner sponsored by Spain who reached the Caribbean in 1492 while seeking Asia, initiating a permanent state-supported Europe-Americas connection

Portuguese navigator under Spanish sponsorship who led the 1519 expedition around South America and across the Pacific but died in the Philippines

Venetian mariner sponsored by Henry VII who reached northeastern North America in 1497 while seeking a shorter route to Asia

French explorer who entered the Gulf and River of St. Lawrence beginning in 1534 while seeking a passage to Asia

Explorer who searched for northern routes under Dutch and English sponsorship, exploring the Hudson River in 1609 and Hudson Bay in 1610

The Northwest Passage was a proposed route through or around northern North America; the Northeast Passage followed northern Eurasia

The 1494 agreement dividing overseas claims: Portugal received lands east of a line west of Cape Verde, while Spain received lands west of it

Post-1492 transfer of plants, animals, diseases, vectors, and people between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia, causing Indigenous depopulation, ecological change, and expanded Afro-Eurasian food supplies

Catastrophic post-contact population decline caused primarily by smallpox, measles, malaria, and other diseases, with warfare, forced labor, famine, and displacement worsening mortality

Large-scale, export-oriented farming that commonly used monoculture and coerced labor, especially for labor-intensive sugar production

A crop grown mainly for sale rather than subsistence; sugar and tobacco were produced on American plantations for export to Europe and the Middle East

A maritime empire based on fortified coastal ports and control of trade routes rather than extensive inland conquest

A Portuguese naval pass that Indian Ocean ships could be required to purchase, generating revenue and pressuring merchants

A hybrid empire of fortified trading posts across Africa and Asia and a territorial plantation colony in Brazil

A territorial empire centered in the Americas, created through Indigenous conquest and colonization, with the Philippines as its major Asian base

An empire of selected ports, islands, and colonies centered in Asia on Batavia and aimed partly at controlling the spice trade

An empire combining a fur-trading North American network dependent on Indigenous alliances with Caribbean plantations and Indian trading posts

An empire combining settler colonies in North America, Caribbean plantations, and commercial footholds in India

Spanish conquerors who used weapons, Indigenous allies, disease, and political divisions to overthrow American empires and claim territory for Spain

Spanish conquistador who used Indigenous allies and the effects of disease to defeat the Aztec Empire and capture Tenochtitlán in 1521

Spanish conquistador who exploited divisions and disease within the Inca Empire and began its conquest in the 1530s

Selective policies that suppressed Christianity, expelled the Portuguese, and confined foreign commerce to controlled channels such as Nagasaki

Policies limiting foreign commerce to approved ports and procedures to control piracy, smuggling, unauthorized merchants, and foreign influence

West African state centered on Kumasi that expanded through centralized rule, control of gold and slave-trading routes, and imported firearms

Central African kingdom whose rulers gained influence through Portuguese diplomacy, Christianity, and Atlantic trade but suffered disruption from slave trading

An established commercial system that continued to flourish despite European disruption, with Asian and African merchants remaining central to intra-Asian trade

The Inca mit’a supplied rotational community labor for state projects; the Spanish colonial mita adapted it to compel Indigenous labor for colonial extraction, especially at Potosí.

A Spanish Crown grant allowing a colonist to collect tribute or labor from an Indigenous community in exchange for protection and Christian instruction

A large Spanish American landed estate using wage labor, tenancy, coercion, or debt peonage to produce food or commercial crops

Temporary contract labor, often exchanged for Atlantic transportation, used especially in early English colonial economies

Earlier African slavery was varied and sometimes allowed incorporation into households or communities; Atlantic slavery became more racialized, hereditary, permanent, and plantation-centered

The commercial system that bought, sold, and forcibly transported enslaved Africans, chiefly to meet plantation labor demand in the Americas

The forced transatlantic voyage that transported enslaved Africans to the Americas under brutal and deadly conditions

European policies that used trade regulation, bullion accumulation, protected manufacturing, colonies, and naval power to increase state wealth and power

A company in which investors pooled capital, purchased shares, and divided profits and risks to finance expensive overseas ventures

A company granted exclusive trade rights and governmental powers by a ruler in return for advancing the state’s commercial and imperial interests

Dutch company founded in 1602 that used Batavia, armed force, and monopoly policies to dominate parts of the Southeast Asian spice trade

English company chartered in 1600 that traded in Asian goods and operated trading posts, armed forces, and political privileges

A simplified model of European goods going to Africa, enslaved Africans to the Americas, and American commodities to Europe

The interconnected movement of commodities, capital, manufactured goods, and labor, including enslaved people, among Europe, Africa, and the Americas

The circulation of American silver across the Atlantic and Pacific to Europe and Asia, especially China, in exchange for Asian goods

Major Spanish American silver-mining center in the Andes that relied heavily on Indigenous labor supplied through the colonial mita

Spanish ships that carried American silver from Acapulco to Manila and returned with Chinese and other Asian goods

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century European inflation caused largely by population growth and the influx of American silver, which raised prices and reduced real wages

Ming tax reform that consolidated many labor and tax obligations into a single payment in silver, increasing Chinese demand for imported silver

Early modern expansion of global trade, banking, credit, joint-stock investment, and market-oriented production that strengthened European commercial capitalism

A system in which merchants supplied raw materials to rural households that spun or wove goods at home for payment

The forced dispersal of Africans, especially through the Atlantic slave trade, which spread African peoples and cultural traditions throughout the Americas

The creation of new languages, foods, music, customs, and beliefs from African, Indigenous American, and European traditions

The blending or accommodation of beliefs and practices from different religions into a new or locally adapted tradition

A syncretic Haitian religious tradition with colonial roots combining West and Central African sacred practices with elements of Catholicism

A syncretic Cuban religious tradition combining African sacred beings and rituals with Catholic saints and observances

A syncretic Brazilian religious tradition preserving African-derived spirits and rituals alongside elements of Catholic practice

Mexican Catholic devotion associated with 1531 apparitions that expressed Christianity through an Indigenous Nahua cultural setting

Catholic religious order whose educated missionaries spread Christianity through schools, scholarship, and cultural accommodation in the Americas and Asia

1680 Indigenous uprising in New Mexico that expelled the Spanish for about twelve years and led Spain, after reconquest, to tolerate more Pueblo religious practices

French rebellions from 1648–1653 against royal taxation and centralization; their failure helped Louis XIV strengthen the monarchy and control the nobility

Seventeenth-century Cossack uprisings such as the Khmelnytsky and Razin revolts resisted Polish-Lithuanian or Russian authority and challenged expanding state control over frontier communities

Regional struggle against Mughal expansion in western India whose prolonged Deccan warfare drained Mughal resources and contributed to imperial fragmentation and rising Maratha power

Ruler of Ndongo and Matamba who used warfare, diplomacy, conversion, and a Dutch alliance to resist Portuguese expansion; Portugal recognized her Matamba rule in 1656

1675–1678 New England war over English settlement, land loss, and sovereignty; colonial victory devastated Native communities and accelerated English territorial expansion

Independent communities founded by escaped enslaved people that defended autonomy, aided fugitives, and challenged colonial governments through settlement, trade, raids, and guerrilla warfare

Ottoman arrangement granting Christian and Jewish communities limited religious, legal, and communal autonomy under Muslim rule

Ottoman recruitment of Christian boys who were converted, educated, and trained for military or administrative service

Mughal emperor who abolished the jizya, allied with Rajputs, and broadly accommodated non-Muslims

Manchu-ruled Chinese dynasty established in 1644 that retained Confucian institutions while preserving Manchu identity and political and military privileges

Qing requirement that Han Chinese men wear the Manchu hairstyle as a public sign of submission

Spanish American hierarchy that connected perceived ancestry and birthplace to status, labor obligations, and access to office

Peninsulares were Spain-born colonists favored for high offices; creoles were American-born Europeans who formed a wealthy local elite

People of combined European and Indigenous American ancestry who occupied an intermediate but unequal position in Spanish America’s casta hierarchy

People of combined European and African ancestry who occupied an intermediate but unequal position in colonial Latin America’s casta hierarchy

Russia’s hereditary landowning aristocrats, whose political independence declined as tsars required greater state service

Hereditary landed elites who retained titles and privileges, though their political influence varied as monarchies centralized