AP®︎ World History: Unit 5 Flashcards

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century transformation that used observation, experimentation, and mathematics to explain nature and challenged reliance on ancient and religious authority

Late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century movement applying reason and empiricism to nature, government, society, and religion while questioning inherited authority

The belief that knowledge should be grounded in observation and experience rather than tradition or abstract authority alone

Rights possessed by nature rather than granted by government; Locke identified life, liberty, and property

The theory that government originates in a human agreement and is legitimate only under the terms and purposes of that agreement

The principle that ultimate political authority belongs to the people rather than a monarch or hereditary ruling family

Division of legislative, executive, and judicial authority so no person or institution controls all governmental power

The principle that governments should permit differing religious beliefs and communities rather than persecute dissenters

Social-contract theorist who argued that people transfer extensive authority to a powerful sovereign to prevent violent disorder

English philosopher who defended empiricism, natural rights to life, liberty, and property, limited government, and the right to replace tyrannical rulers

French philosopher who argued that dividing governmental power among institutions could prevent tyranny and protect liberty

French Enlightenment writer who attacked censorship, religious persecution, and established-church power while defending toleration and freedom of thought

Philosopher who argued that sovereignty belonged to the people and legitimate government should express the general will

Wollstonecraft’s 1792 argument that denying rational education to women creates dependence and contradicts Enlightenment principles

De Gouges’s 1791 rewriting of France’s rights declaration to demand for women the same civil and political rights proclaimed for men

Developing arguments and organized demands for women’s educational, legal, economic, civil, and political equality

The right of women to vote and the reform movement demanding that right

The 1848 U.S. women’s-rights convention organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott that demanded equality, including women’s suffrage

The movement to end the slave trade and slavery, justified through natural rights, human equality, and religious morality

The legal ending of peasants’ inherited bondage and movement restrictions, justified by liberty and equality but often leaving economic dependence intact

The belief that people sharing identity through language, religion, customs, history, or territory form a nation entitled to political community or self-government

A state claiming to represent a particular nation and seeking to align political borders with that national community

An ideology favoring civil liberties, legal equality, constitutional government, representative institutions, and private property, but not necessarily universal suffrage

Ideology favoring established institutions, social hierarchy, private property, religion, and gradual change rather than revolutionary transformation

The connected American, French, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions, linked by circulating Enlightenment ideas and revolutionary precedents but differing in causes and outcomes

The 1775–1783 colonial revolt against British taxation and imperial control that created the independent United States and a constitutional republic

The 1776 document asserting natural rights, government by consent, and the people’s right to replace an abusive government to justify separation from Britain

Government through representatives and civic institutions rather than hereditary monarchy, often with limited suffrage in this period

The revolution beginning in 1789 that attacked monarchy and legal privilege, established citizenship and a republic, and later produced terror and Napoleonic rule

France’s legal social divisions: the privileged clergy and nobility formed the First and Second Estates, while everyone else belonged to the Third Estate

The 1789 French declaration of liberty, legal equality, fundamental rights, and national sovereignty that rejected inherited privilege and arbitrary rule

The radical phase of the French Revolution in 1793–1794 when the revolutionary government executed suspected enemies amid war and internal conflict

The general who seized power in 1799, ended the revolutionary republic, and spread selected revolutionary reforms through conquest

The 1791–1804 uprising in Saint-Domingue that defeated French colonial rule, abolished slavery, and created the independent Black republic of Haiti

The best-known leader of the Haitian Revolution who led formerly enslaved forces and governed Saint-Domingue autonomously before dying in French imprisonment

Early nineteenth-century struggles that ended most Spanish and Portuguese rule in the Americas but generally preserved elite power and social inequality

Colonial social groups in Iberian America: peninsulares were European-born and favored for high offices, while American-born Creoles held wealth but resented their political exclusion

The revolutionary leader who led independence campaigns in northern South America and advocated independence and regional cooperation

Bolívar’s 1815 argument that Spanish rule had left Spanish Americans politically inexperienced and economically restricted and that independence and regional cooperation were necessary

The independence leader who conducted major military campaigns against Spanish rule in southern South America

The leader associated with the popular uprising that began Mexico’s independence struggle and mobilized many Indigenous and mixed-race supporters

Brazil’s 1822 separation from Portugal under Pedro I, producing an independent monarchy rather than an immediate republic

The 1814–1815 meeting that restored conservative monarchies and created a European balance of power after Napoleon’s defeat

European uprisings demanding constitutions, representative government, national self-determination, or social reform; most were defeated but their demands endured

The nationalist combination of popular activism, diplomacy, alliances, and war that created a constitutional Kingdom of Italy between 1861 and 1870

The Prussian-led process of economic integration, diplomacy, and war that created the German Empire in 1871

The Prussian minister-president who used military reform, diplomacy, and wars against Denmark, Austria, and France to unify Germany under Prussia

Rising farm productivity from crop rotation, selective breeding, systematic cultivation, and land consolidation that supported population growth, urban labor, and investment

Consolidation of common and small agricultural lands into private commercial farms, increasing productivity while displacing some rural people into wage labor

The sustained shift from hand production in households and workshops to mechanized factory production, beginning in Great Britain in the mid-18th century

Preindustrial system in which merchants supplied raw materials to dispersed households, collected their finished goods, and sold them

A production system that concentrated workers, machinery, materials, and power in one location and divided production into specialized tasks

Breaking production into separate repetitive tasks performed by different workers, increasing output and reducing reliance on fully skilled artisans

The growth of cities, which concentrated workers, merchants, consumers, credit, and transportation links and was then accelerated by factory growth

James Hargreaves’s multispindle spinning machine, which allowed one worker to produce several threads simultaneously and increased textile output

Mechanized loom powered initially by water and later by steam that greatly increased the speed and scale of cloth weaving

A fuel-efficient steam engine improved by James Watt with a separate condenser and rotary motion, making steam power practical for factories, mines, and transportation

Eli Whitney’s machine for rapidly separating cotton fibers from seeds, which expanded cotton production and the demand for enslaved labor in the United States

The shift to machines powered by vast stores of coal and oil, greatly increasing the usable energy available for production and transportation

The later phase of industrialization, emerging around 1870, marked by new production methods in steel, chemicals, electricity, and precision machinery

An 1856 process that forced air through molten iron to remove impurities, making large-scale, lower-cost steel production possible

An engine that burns fuel inside its cylinders; its increasing use of gasoline and diesel extended petroleum power to smaller, lighter, and more mobile machines

Steam-powered overland networks that lowered transportation costs and connected interior mines, farms, factories, cities, and ports

Fossil-fuel-powered vessels that moved goods and passengers faster and more predictably, including upriver and against unfavorable winds

A system that transmitted electrically encoded messages through wires, allowing distant markets and transportation networks to coordinate within minutes

Government-directed investment in factories, technology, infrastructure, education, and military industry to accelerate industrial development and strengthen the state

Muhammad Ali’s state-sponsored program using cotton monopolies, factories, foreign technology, and military reform to industrialize Egypt and strengthen its government and army

Late, regionally concentrated industrialization driven heavily by the state, foreign capital, railroads, and growth in coal, iron, textiles, and factories

Russian railroad begun in 1891 to connect European Russia with Siberia and the Pacific, linking distant resources and industrial centers

The 1868 political transformation after which Japanese leaders accelerated industrialization to strengthen Japan against Western pressure

Collection of state policies seeking national wealth and power through regulated trade, tariffs, monopolies, bullion accumulation, and controlled colonial markets

International exchange with reduced tariffs, monopolies, and restrictions on imports and exports

Scottish Enlightenment thinker whose 1776 Wealth of Nations defended private enterprise, competition, division of labor, and freer markets and trade

Principle that private economic activity should generally operate without extensive government interference, though government still protects property, contracts, and public order

System of private ownership, capital investment, wage labor, mechanized market production, and reinvestment of profits in expanding industrial enterprises

Business legally separate from its owners that can own property, make contracts, borrow, and continue despite changes in shareholders

Organized market for buying and selling company shares, making ownership easier to transfer and helping firms attract investment

Firm with major operations across countries or imperial territories, linking international sources of capital, raw materials, production, and markets

Organization of workers seeking shared goals such as higher wages, shorter hours, safer conditions, and the right to organize

Negotiation by workers as a group with an employer over wages, hours, rules, and working conditions

Collective withholding of labor by workers to pressure an employer to meet their demands

Broad family of ideologies favoring social or collective control of productive resources and a more equal distribution of wealth

Early socialist approach proposing planned cooperative communities as alternatives to competitive capitalism

Revolutionary socialist collaborators who interpreted history as class struggle, criticized capitalist exploitation, and argued that workers would overthrow capitalism

Marx and Engels’s 1848 revolutionary pamphlet presenting history as class struggle and calling on workers of all countries to unite

Revolutionary Marxist goal of common ownership, abolition of capitalist private property, and an ultimately classless society

In Marxism, the bourgeoisie are capitalists who own the means of production, while the proletariat are wage workers who own no productive property

Reform philosophy associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill that judged institutions and actions by whether they produced the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Ottoman reorganization from 1839 to 1876 that centralized administration and modernized the military, taxation, law, education, and infrastructure

Qing reform movement of the 1860s–1890s adopting Western military and industrial techniques while preserving Confucian political foundations

Brief 1898 Qing program proposing broader educational, administrative, military, and economic reforms before conservative opponents ended it

Growing class of managers, professionals, officials, clerks, shopkeepers, and small business owners between wealthy elites and wage laborers

Factory, mine, transport, and other manual workers who lacked productive property and depended primarily on wages

Middle-class ideal assigning men to wage earning and public affairs and women to household management, morality, and child development

Poor families’ need for income led children to work, while industrialization concentrated many in factories and mines under strict schedules and dangerous conditions

Dense, cheaply built or subdivided urban housing marked by overcrowding, poor ventilation, inadequate sanitation, and contaminated water

Early British national law promoting local sanitary administration in response to urban disease and poor sanitation

Material well-being measured through income, consumption, housing, health, nutrition, safety, working hours, sanitation, and services