AP®︎ European History: Unit 2 Flashcards

The pre-Reformation ideal of western Europe as one Christian community under the Roman Catholic Church’s universal spiritual authority

The durable coexistence of competing Christian confessions, including Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, and Anabaptist communities

Territorial political authority recognizing no superior temporal power within its jurisdiction

The process by which governments and churches defined, taught, and enforced a particular religious confession

The use of humanist textual scholarship and education to study Christian sources and promote moral and institutional reform, exemplified by Erasmus

Dutch Christian humanist who used classical learning and biblical scholarship to criticize clerical abuses and promote moral reform within Catholicism

Erasmus’s 1511 satire exposing clerical corruption, superstition, scholastic pretension, and other failings of Christian society

Gutenberg’s mid-15th-century printing technology, which rapidly and cheaply spread standardized texts, vernacular ideas, and religious controversy

The buying or selling of church offices

The advancement of relatives to church offices

Related clerical abuses in which one person held multiple church offices and collected their incomes without residing in or adequately serving them

A remission of temporal punishment remaining after sin’s guilt was forgiven, whose commercialization provoked criticism of church wealth and authority

Dominican preacher whose dramatic promotion of an indulgence campaign near Wittenberg provoked Luther’s criticism

German reformer whose attack on indulgences developed into Lutheran doctrines of faith alone, scripture alone, and the priesthood of all believers

Luther’s 1517 propositions challenging indulgence preaching, false spiritual security, and claims of papal authority over purgatory

Luther’s doctrine that people are counted righteous through faith in Christ as a gift of grace, not through the merit of good works

Luther’s doctrine that the Bible is the final authority in matters necessary for salvation, above popes, councils, and unsupported traditions

The doctrine that all baptized Christians have direct spiritual access to God and that ordained priests possess no higher spiritual status

Protestant tradition based on Luther’s teachings of faith alone, scripture as final authority, two sacraments, and the priesthood of all believers

The 1521 imperial assembly where Luther refused to retract his writings unless disproved by scripture or clear reasoning

Charles V’s 1521 decree declaring Luther an outlaw and prohibiting his writings

Elector of Saxony who protected Luther after the Diet of Worms by concealing him at Wartburg Castle

The 1524–1525 uprising in which German peasants combined social and economic grievances with appeals to scripture and Christian freedom

The peasants’ 1525 program demanding reforms such as chosen pastors, reduced dues, restored common rights, and an end to unjustified serfdom

The 1555 settlement allowing each imperial ruler to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for the territory, while excluding Calvinists and individual religious freedom

Swiss reformer who established a scripture-based church in Zürich and taught that the Eucharist was a symbolic memorial rather than Christ’s bodily presence

The 1529 meeting where Luther and Zwingli agreed on most doctrines but failed to unite because they disagreed over Christ’s presence in the Eucharist

Radical reformers who rejected infant baptism for believers’ baptism; many also advocated voluntary churches, separation from secular government, pacifism, and strict discipline

Baptism administered to adults who consciously profess faith and voluntarily join the Christian community

The violent Anabaptist apocalyptic regime of 1534–1535, an exceptional episode unlike the generally pacifist Anabaptist tradition

Anabaptist leader who organized nonviolent communities after Münster; his followers became known as Mennonites

French Protestant reformer who emphasized divine sovereignty, predestination, disciplined conduct, and biblically organized churches

Calvin’s systematic presentation of Protestant theology, first published in 1536 and expanded in later editions

Calvinist doctrine that God has eternally determined who will be saved and that human actions cannot earn or alter election

Those whom God has eternally chosen for salvation according to the Calvinist doctrine of predestination

Self-governing city republic that became Calvinism’s institutional center, training ministers, sheltering exiles, and printing Reformed works

Geneva’s body of ministers and lay elders that investigated conduct and enforced Calvinist moral discipline

The Calvinist association of disciplined labor in a God-given calling, frugality, and reinvestment of wealth with a godly life and possible signs of divine favor

Scottish Calvinist reformer who helped establish the Presbyterian Church of Scotland and opposed Catholic royal authority

Church government by assemblies of ministers and elected elders rather than by bishops appointed under royal authority

English king who broke with Rome after the pope refused to annul his marriage and made himself supreme head of the Church of England

Henry VIII’s first wife whose failure to produce a surviving son and whose disputed annulment helped cause England’s break with Rome

Henry VIII’s second wife and Elizabeth I’s mother, whose marriage encouraged his break with Rome before she was executed in 1536

The 1534 law that made Henry VIII supreme head of the Church of England, replacing papal supremacy with royal control

The English national church established under royal supremacy after Henry VIII’s break with the papacy

Henry VIII’s seizure and sale of English monastic lands and wealth from 1536 to 1540, strengthening royal power and creating new landowners

Archbishop of Canterbury who supported Henry VIII’s annulment and shaped Protestant English worship and doctrine under Edward VI

Thomas Cranmer’s English-language liturgy that standardized worship in the Church of England and advanced Protestant reform

Henry VIII’s Protestant son under whom England adopted more clearly Protestant doctrine and worship

Catholic daughter of Henry VIII who restored papal authority and persecuted Protestants during her reign from 1553 to 1558

English queen who established a durable Protestant national church while retaining moderate traditional forms and royal control

Elizabeth I’s 1559 compromise restoring royal supremacy and Protestant doctrine while retaining bishops and a relatively traditional worship structure

The 1563 doctrinal statement defining the Church of England as Protestant while preserving an episcopal national church

English Calvinist-influenced Protestants who sought to remove remaining Catholic features from the monarch-controlled Church of England

Holy Roman emperor who condemned Luther at Worms but could not enforce religious uniformity across the decentralized empire

The dynastic struggle between the Habsburgs and French Valois for influence in Italy and Europe that repeatedly diverted Charles V from suppressing Protestantism

Ottoman sultan whose expansion into Hungary and toward Vienna forced the Habsburgs to divide resources between eastern defense and religious conflict

Suleiman's unsuccessful 1529 siege that demonstrated the Ottoman threat to the Habsburg lands and central Europe

Alliance formed by Protestant princes in 1531 to defend themselves against Charles V's efforts to restore Catholicism in the Holy Roman Empire

The 1562–1598 civil wars in which conflict between Catholics and Huguenots combined with noble factionalism and the weakness of the monarchy

French Calvinists whose support among nobles and towns made them a major political and military faction during the French Wars of Religion

French queen mother and regent who alternated between compromise and repression to preserve the vulnerable Valois monarchy against rival confessional factions

The 1572 killing of thousands of Huguenots in Paris and elsewhere, which intensified confessional hatred and damaged trust in the French monarchy

The 1585–1589 struggle among Henry III, Catholic League leader Henry of Guise, and Huguenot heir Henry of Navarre for control of France

Huguenot heir who became king of France, converted to Catholicism to secure the kingdom, and issued the Edict of Nantes

A leader, exemplified by Henry IV, who placed the peace and interests of the state above uncompromising religious uniformity

Henry IV's 1598 edict maintaining Catholic predominance while granting Huguenots limited worship, civil rights, freedom of conscience, and security towns

Catholic king of Spain who defended Catholicism while fighting England and suppressing Dutch resistance to Spanish taxation, centralization, and religious policy

The Netherlands' rebellion against Philip II over Protestant persecution, taxation, centralization, provincial liberties, and commercial interests

Philip II’s Spanish commander who attempted to suppress the Dutch Revolt through military occupation, taxation, and the repressive Council of Troubles

The principal political leader of Dutch resistance to Philip II and Spanish rule in the Netherlands

The 1579 alliance of northern Dutch provinces that became the political foundation of the independent Dutch Republic

Philip II's failed 1588 invasion fleet against England, defeated through English tactics, coordination problems, and severe weather

The 1618–1648 war that began as a religious and constitutional struggle in the Holy Roman Empire and became a European contest over Habsburg power

The 1618 incident in which Protestant Bohemian nobles threw imperial officials from a castle window, symbolically beginning the Thirty Years’ War

Catholic Habsburg emperor who defeated the Bohemian revolt, promoted Catholic restoration, and attempted to strengthen imperial authority

The 1618–1625 phase in which Protestant Bohemian nobles rebelled against Habsburg religious and political centralization but were defeated

The 1625–1629 phase in which Lutheran Christian IV intervened to defend Protestantism and expand Danish influence in northern Germany but was defeated

Ferdinand II's 1629 order restoring Catholic church property acquired by Protestants since 1552, alarming Protestant and Catholic princes alike

The 1630–1635 phase in which Sweden defended German Protestants while seeking Baltic power, aided by subsidies from Catholic France

Swedish king who intervened for Protestantism and Baltic influence, won at Breitenfeld, and died at Lützen in 1632

The 1635–1648 phase in which Catholic France and Protestant Sweden fought the Habsburgs primarily to prevent Habsburg domination of Europe

Catholic chief minister of France who supported Protestant powers and fought the Habsburgs to protect French security and power

The 1648 settlements that ended the Thirty Years’ War, recognized Calvinism and Dutch and Swiss independence, strengthened imperial estates, and marked the effective end of universal Christendom

Sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Catholic revival and reform; “Catholic Reformation” stresses internal renewal, while “Counter-Reformation” stresses resistance to Protestantism

Intermittent Catholic council from 1545 to 1563 that reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, rejected Protestant claims, reformed clerical discipline, and required diocesan seminaries

Centrally organized Catholic order approved in 1540 that strengthened Catholicism through education, preaching, political counsel, and global missions

Spanish former soldier who founded the Jesuits and promoted disciplined spirituality, education, obedience, and active service to the pope

Ignatius of Loyola’s structured program of meditation, prayer, self-examination, and decision-making intended to discipline the will for service to God

Papal system of tribunals established in 1542 to investigate heresy and enforce Catholic orthodoxy, especially in the Italian states

Catholic lists, first issued papally in 1559 and revised in 1564, restricting works judged heretical, immoral, or dangerous to the faith

Women’s religious community founded by Angela Merici in 1535 and especially devoted to educating girls and strengthening Catholic family life

Spanish mystic who reformed the Carmelites into stricter Discalced communities emphasizing poverty, discipline, enclosure, and contemplative prayer

The long-term 16th-century inflation fueled partly by population growth and American silver, with prices often rising faster than wages

Production and exchange organized around investment, credit, long-distance trade, and profit

The market-oriented use of land and labor to produce agricultural goods for sale and profit

The consolidation and fencing of common lands into privately controlled farms, encouraging commercial agriculture while displacing some small farmers and rural laborers

The growth of towns and cities as migration, commerce, manufacturing, and population increasingly concentrated people in urban centers

A household centered on a married couple and their children, common in much of northwestern Europe

Northwestern European pattern of relatively late marriage, frequent lifelong singleness, and formation of an independent household after marriage

Patriarchal unit of production, consumption, welfare, discipline, and identity that could include relatives, servants, apprentices, boarders, and hired workers

Gendered division of household work in which men and women performed different essential tasks, while men retained greater legal authority, property rights, and prestige

Protestants rejected clerical celibacy and made the married pastor’s household a model of Christian life, while Catholics reaffirmed clerical celibacy

Long-running intellectual dispute over women’s nature, abilities, education, virtues, and proper roles in family, church, and society

Government measures that taxed communities to aid the local deserving poor while regulating, confining, or punishing beggars and the able-bodied poor

Cooperative effort by religious and political authorities to make conduct conform to officially approved beliefs and social norms

A communal festival that temporarily inverted hierarchy, mocked elites, and permitted controlled disorder

Noisy public ridicule of people believed to have violated community expectations concerning marriage, sexuality, or household authority

Visible punishment intended to shame offenders, warn spectators, and restore communal order through practices such as stocks, whipping, or branding

Prosecutions peaking about 1580–1650 that combined folk beliefs, demonology, social stress, confessional conflict, and enabling courts, producing roughly 40,000–60,000 executions

Heinrich Kramer’s 1486–1487 demonological work, spread through print, that portrayed witchcraft as a diabolical threat particularly associated with women

Style emerging in 1520s Italy that departed from High Renaissance balance through elongated bodies, difficult poses, unstable space, unnatural color, and intellectual complexity

Crete-born painter active in Spain who combined Byzantine, Venetian, and Mannerist influences in elongated, intensely colored spiritual visions

Late-sixteenth- and seventeenth-century style using movement, emotion, dramatic light, monumental scale, and illusion to engage viewers and magnify religious or political authority

Early Baroque painter who combined ordinary-looking figures, decisive action, and tenebrism to make sacred events immediate and emotionally compelling

Leading sculptor and architect of papal Baroque Rome who integrated sculpture, architecture, light, movement, and ceremonial space

Italian Baroque painter influenced by Caravaggio who built a courtly career and became known for forceful biblical heroines

Flemish Baroque painter who combined Italian Renaissance monumentality, Caravaggesque drama, rich color, muscular bodies, and energetic movement in Catholic and courtly commissions