AP®︎ European History: Unit 7 Flashcards

Post-1815 system of Great Power consultation that defended the Vienna settlement until conflict among its members weakened it

Wave of liberal, nationalist, and social uprisings across Europe that briefly challenged conservative governments but was largely suppressed by 1849

The ideology or movement that gives the nation primary political loyalty and seeks institutions expressing its collective identity

Nationalism joining national sovereignty with constitutions, representative institutions, legal equality, and freedom from foreign or absolutist rule

Nationalism that uses language, folklore, literature, traditions, and historical memory to present a people as an organic national community

A sovereign state that claims to represent a particular nation, though it may contain cultural or ethnic minorities

Aggressive, uncritical belief in the superiority or interests of one's own nation

Civic nationalism bases membership on citizenship and political allegiance; ethnic or racial nationalism bases it on ancestry, language, religion, or supposed blood ties

Hostility portraying Jews as a permanent racial or hereditary group alien to the nation regardless of citizenship, conversion, or acculturation

French crisis over the false 1894 treason conviction of Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus; anti-Semitism and an army cover-up divided France before his 1906 exoneration

Late nineteenth-century Jewish nationalism seeking a political homeland and collective self-determination in response to persistent anti-Semitism

Central figure in political Zionism who argued in The Jewish State that assimilation could not defeat anti-Semitism and advocated establishing a Jewish state

French ruler who used plebiscites, national glory, economic development, and military prestige to legitimize the authoritarian Second Empire

Direct popular vote on a political question, often used by nineteenth-century rulers to claim democratic legitimacy for authoritarian policies

1853–1856 war in which Britain, France, and Piedmont-Sardinia aided the Ottoman Empire against Russia, weakening the Concert of Europe and isolating Austria

The diplomatic problem of what would happen to Ottoman territories as Ottoman power declined

The nineteenth-century movement for Italian national unification, meaning Italy's resurgence or rebirth

Italian republican nationalist and the organization he founded to seek a unified, independent Italian republic through popular revolution

Constitutional northwestern Italian kingdom that led unification under Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour

Piedmontese prime minister who used modernization, diplomacy, French support, limited war, and plebiscites to unify northern and central Italy

1859 war in which France and Piedmont-Sardinia defeated Austria, gained Lombardy, and advanced Italian unification before Napoleon III made an early peace

Popular republican soldier and his volunteer Red Shirts, whose 1860 campaign conquered Sicily and Naples before transferring them to Victor Emmanuel II

King of Piedmont-Sardinia who became the first king of a united Italy in 1861

Unified Italian state proclaimed in 1861 under Victor Emmanuel II, later gaining Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870

Prussian minister-president who unified Germany through Realpolitik, diplomatic isolation of opponents, warfare, and controlled representative institutions

Politics based on practical calculations of power and national interest rather than consistent ideological principles

Prussian-led customs union that removed trade barriers among most German states while excluding Austria

1864 war in which Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and took Schleswig and Holstein, creating a future dispute between the victors

1866 conflict ending in decisive Prussian victory, Austria's exclusion from German affairs, and creation of the North German Confederation

Prussian-dominated federation formed in 1867 with an elected Reichstag but executive and military power controlled by the Prussian monarchy

1870–1871 war in which the German states defeated France, united under Prussia, and proclaimed the German Empire

Bismarck's edited publication of Wilhelm I's exchange with a French ambassador, which inflamed opinion and helped provoke France into war

Prussian-dominated German state proclaimed at Versailles in 1871 with Wilhelm I as Kaiser

Prussian king who appointed Bismarck, backed army reform, and became German emperor in 1871

War conducted with railroads, modern weapons, telegraphs, mass production, detailed planning, and an industrial state's resources

Settlement creating the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary, with separate Austrian and Hungarian domestic governments but a shared monarch, foreign policy, and defense

Settlement creating Austria-Hungary, with separate Austrian and Hungarian governments under one Habsburg monarch and shared foreign and military affairs

European order dominated by a newly unified and powerful Germany, whose alliances sought to isolate France and prevent a hostile coalition or two-front war

French desire to avenge defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and recover Alsace-Lorraine

1873 agreement among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia intended to coordinate the conservative empires and deny France an ally

1879 defensive alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary directed principally against Russia

Alliance formed in 1882 among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, although Italy remained an uncertain partner

Secret 1887 agreement promising German-Russian neutrality in most wars and preserving cooperation despite Germany's alliance with Austria-Hungary

German emperor from 1888 to 1918 who dismissed Bismarck, pursued naval and imperial expansion, and destabilized Germany’s alliance system

Wilhelm II’s policy of seeking German world power through colonial expansion, an enlarged navy, and a more assertive foreign policy

Military alliance developed from 1891 to 1894 that ended France's isolation and confronted Germany with a possible two-front war

1904 Anglo-French understanding that settled imperial disputes and drew Britain closer to France

Prewar diplomatic grouping linking France, Russia, and Britain through the Franco-Russian Alliance and Anglo-French and Anglo-Russian understandings

Movement promoting solidarity among Slavic peoples, used by Russia to support influence among Orthodox Slavs in the Balkans

1878 conference that reduced Bulgaria, recognized Serbia, Romania, and Montenegro, and allowed Austria-Hungary to administer Bosnia-Herzegovina

1908–1909 crisis caused by Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which angered Serbia and forced Russia to retreat under German pressure

Germany’s 1905–1906 challenge to French influence in Morocco that ended with France strengthened, Britain supporting France, and Germany largely isolated

1911 crisis caused by Germany sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir; Germany accepted compensation while France established a Moroccan protectorate

Wars of 1912–1913 that drove the Ottoman Empire from most of Europe and then divided the victors, enlarging Serbia and intensifying Balkan tensions

English naturalist whose observations during the HMS Beagle voyage helped him develop evolution by natural selection and a material account of human origins

Darwin’s 1859 work presenting natural selection as the mechanism explaining adaptation, diversity, and the development of species

Process by which individuals with advantageous inherited traits leave more offspring, making those traits more common over generations

Darwin’s 1871 work explicitly applying evolution and common descent to human beings

Application of evolutionary language to society to portray class, racial, national, or imperial hierarchy as natural, beneficial, or justified

Thinker most associated with Social Darwinism who applied competition and evolutionary progress to society and defended laissez-faire and limited aid to the poor

Herbert Spencer’s phrase for selection, later adopted by Darwin; biologically it means reproductive success, but Social Darwinists recast it as social or racial superiority

Use of supposedly scientific measurements and classifications to divide humanity into fixed, unequal races headed by white Europeans

Efforts, named by Francis Galton in 1883, to improve a population’s supposed hereditary quality by promoting reproduction among the “fit” and discouraging or preventing it among the “unfit.”

Philosophy that genuine knowledge comes only from observable evidence and scientific methods, which can be applied to society as well as nature

French thinker most closely associated with positivism who coined sociology and sought scientific laws that could guide rational social organization

Explanation of reality and historical change primarily through physical, economic, or environmental causes rather than spiritual purposes

Philosopher who rejected universal morality, treated values as historical creations, and emphasized self-creation, struggle, and the will to power

Thinker whose psychoanalysis argued that unconscious desires, fears, memories, and conflicts strongly shape apparently rational human behavior

The portion of mental life outside conscious awareness whose hidden desires, memories, fears, and conflicts influence behavior

Freud’s model in which the instinctive id seeks gratification, the rational ego negotiates reality, and the moral superego enforces internalized social standards

Theory originating with Planck's proposal that energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete quanta rather than in an entirely continuous flow

Physicist who proposed in 1900 that energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete quanta, helping initiate quantum theory

Physicist whose special theory of relativity made space and time dependent on relative motion while keeping the vacuum speed of light constant

Rapid intensification of European control over Africa and Asia, especially from about 1870 to 1914, enabled by industrial power

Rapid late-nineteenth-century European competition to claim and partition nearly all of Africa

Foreign economic or political domination exercised without complete annexation or direct colonial government

French claim that empire spread a supposedly superior civilization through French language, education, law, and culture

Rudyard Kipling’s 1899 formulation of empire as a supposed racial duty of white peoples to govern and civilize nonwhite peoples

Late nineteenth-century expansion of industry based on steel, chemicals, electricity, petroleum, advanced machinery, and large-scale corporate production

Recoil-operated machine gun patented in 1884 that allowed a small force to direct sustained fire against much larger formations

Medicine derived from cinchona bark that prevented and treated malaria, reducing European mortality in tropical regions

Industrial transportation technologies that moved imperial troops, officials, raw materials, and manufactured goods rapidly between ports and colonial interiors

Rapid long-distance communication system whose landlines and undersea cables let governments coordinate colonial officials, commerce, and military forces

Canal opened in 1869 linking the Mediterranean and Red Seas; Britain bought shares in 1875 and occupied Egypt in 1882 to secure trade and the route to India

1884–1885 meeting that set rules for European claims in Africa, promoted effective occupation, and recognized Leopold II’s Congo Free State without African participation

Leopold II’s personal possession in central Africa, notorious for violent forced labor in rubber production before Belgium annexed it in 1908

Direct British Crown rule over India established after the Indian Rebellion and the end of East India Company government in 1858

Broad uprising against East India Company rule sparked by cartridge rumors and deeper political, economic, military, and religious grievances; its defeat ended company government

1899–1902 war in which Britain used scorched-earth tactics and concentration camps to defeat the independent Afrikaner republics in southern Africa

1898 confrontation between British and French forces in Sudan; France withdrew, and the settlement later encouraged Anglo-French reconciliation

Regions of China where foreign powers claimed privileged trade, investment, railway, and political rights without formally annexing the territory

Nineteenth-century wars in which Britain and other Western powers defeated China and imposed unequal treaties opening ports and granting foreign privileges

Anti-foreign uprising in China from 1899 to 1901 that was suppressed by an international alliance; the resulting Boxer Protocol deepened China’s foreign subordination

Western-educated political organization founded in 1885 that used petitions, meetings, and reform demands to develop organized Indian nationalism

King Cetshwayo’s Zulu Kingdom defeated the British at Isandlwana in 1879 but was later conquered and broken apart by reinforced British forces

Ethiopian victory over Italy in 1896 under Menelik II that preserved Ethiopian independence during the European partition of Africa

Formal restoration of imperial rule in Japan in 1868 followed by state-led military, educational, political, and industrial modernization that preserved independence and helped make Japan an imperial power

Opposition to colonial conquest and domination based on humanitarian, liberal, nationalist, socialist, economic, or moral criticism of empire

Movement rejecting Neoclassical order and rationalism in favor of emotion, intuition, individuality, nature, the supernatural, and national history

Romantic painter whose Liberty Leading the People transformed the July Revolution into an emotional national myth through allegory and dramatic movement

Delacroix’s Romantic painting of the July Revolution portraying Liberty as an allegorical woman leading an emotionally charged crowd over the barricades

Romantic painter whose solitary figures and mysterious landscapes, including Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, evoked sublime spiritual contemplation

Romantic painter who dissolved forms into light, color, mist, and motion, making nature and industry appear sublime

Composer who bridged Classical and Romantic music by transforming classical forms through dramatic contrasts, heroic intensity, and personal expression

Romantic composer who united music, drama, poetry, myth, and stage design in operas drawing on Germanic and Norse legends

Movement portraying contemporary ordinary life and material social conditions without heroic idealization, often highlighting poverty, labor, and inequality

Realist painter who gave ordinary labor and provincial life monumental treatment in works such as The Stone Breakers and A Burial at Ornans

British novelist who used social observation, satire, sentiment, and serialized plots to expose industrial and urban problems

French writer who developed literary naturalism and examined workers, miners, sexuality, and urban life in a quasi-scientific manner

Modern movement using visible brushstrokes and broken color to capture fleeting effects of light, atmosphere, movement, and immediate perception

Leading Impressionist who used broken color and changing light to emphasize temporary perception in Impression, Sunrise and his later series

Diverse movement building on Impressionism while emphasizing durable structure, symbolism, emotional intensity, or personal organization of color and form

Post-Impressionist who used forceful brushstrokes and intensified, nonnaturalistic colors to express emotional and spiritual experience

Post-Impressionist who reconstructed landscapes and still lifes through simplified planes and geometric relationships, helping prepare the way for Cubism

Movement fragmenting subjects into geometric planes and combining multiple viewpoints, rejecting fixed Renaissance perspective and idealized representation

Co-developer of Cubism whose Les Demoiselles d’Avignon fractured bodies and space while rejecting idealized beauty and coherent classical perspective

European fashion for Japanese art, especially woodblock prints, that influenced composition, color, and perspective

Intellectual and cultural response to weakened certainty that emphasized fragmentation, ambiguity, subjectivity, experimentation, and skepticism toward inherited forms