AP®︎ European History: Unit 6 Flashcards

The long-term transformation from agrarian, handicraft production to machine-powered factories, wage labor, mineral energy, and large markets, beginning in late-eighteenth-century Britain

The eighteenth-century transformation of European farming through crop rotation, selective breeding, enclosure, and improved tools that increased food production and population

The consolidation and fencing of common lands into private farms, increasing agricultural efficiency while displacing many rural laborers

A merchant supplied raw materials to rural households, which made goods with hand tools and returned the finished products for sale

The concentration of workers, machinery, power, and raw materials in one workplace under centralized employer supervision

Textile machine that allowed one worker to spin several threads at once

Water-powered machine that mechanized the spinning of thread

Powered machine that mechanized the weaving of cloth

Watt’s improvements made the steam engine more efficient and adaptable to factories, mines, and transportation

English ironmaster who pioneered smelting iron with coke instead of increasingly scarce charcoal

The smelting of iron with purified coal rather than charcoal, allowing cheaper and much larger-scale iron production

English inventor whose puddling and rolling processes enabled the mass production of stronger, higher-quality wrought iron

Henry Cort’s processes for refining pig iron and shaping it with rollers, making wrought iron cheaper and more abundant

British engineer who developed successful steam locomotives and helped establish the first major public railways

Interconnected rail systems that lowered transport costs, linked resources and factories to consumers, and transformed regional markets into national economies

Britain industrialized first because it possessed coal, capital, skilled labor, agricultural productivity, navigable transport, political stability, colonial markets, and supportive institutions

Economic activity organized by privately owned businesses that invest and produce goods or services for profit

Temporary legal rights over inventions that encouraged innovation by allowing inventors to profit from their work

The shift toward lower mortality and eventually lower birth rates, with population initially growing because death rates fell faster than births

The growth of towns and cities and the increasing proportion of the population living in them

The earliest major continental industrialization, aided by coal and iron, textiles, proximity to Britain, and access to markets

A gradual, state-assisted industrialization in which factories and railroads expanded while workshops, household production, and small farming persisted

A customs union that reduced trade barriers among many German states and helped integrate markets and promote industrialization

Government promotion of industry through infrastructure, technical schools, banks, trade policies, subsidies, concessions, and guarantees

The slower industrial development of eastern and southern Europe because of weak markets, limited capital and transport, traditional agriculture, and persistent landlord dominance

The c. 1870–1914 phase of larger-scale, science-based industrialization centered on steel, chemicals, electricity, petroleum, and integrated markets, with growth concentrated unevenly across Europe

A method patented in 1856 that forced air through molten iron, removing impurities and enabling faster, cheaper mass production of steel

The large-scale production of inexpensive steel for railways, buildings, ships, machinery, and weapons, especially through new refining processes

A flexible form of power distributed through electrical networks to operate machinery, lighting, transportation, businesses, and homes

A science-based second-wave industry producing synthetic dyes, fertilizers, explosives, medicines, soaps, and other commercial chemicals, led especially by Germany

An engine that burns fuel within itself to produce mechanical motion, making petroleum-powered automobiles and airplanes possible

A system transmitting coded electrical messages over wires, allowing governments, railways, newspapers, and merchants to communicate rapidly across long distances

Steam-powered vessels whose improved engines, steel hulls, and cargo capacity made overseas shipping faster, cheaper, and more reliable

An economy in which transportation and communication connect regional producers and consumers to national prices, demand, and markets

A legally recognized business owned through shares whose investors generally enjoy limited liability for its debts

The principle restricting an investor's potential loss to the amount invested, encouraging investment in large and risky enterprises

An agreement among nominally independent firms to coordinate prices, divide markets, or limit production, especially common in German heavy industry

Dominant control of a market by one firm or a closely coordinated group, allowing it to restrict competition and influence prices

A tax on imported goods intended to make foreign products more expensive and protect domestic producers, employment, and developing industries

Alternating periods of economic expansion, overinvestment, falling prices, recession, unemployment, and renewed growth

Manufacturing large quantities of standardized goods at low unit cost through specialized machinery, interchangeable parts, and predictable processes

The large-scale creation and direction of consumer demand through advertising, catalogs, brand names, packaging, displays, and sales promotions

A large urban retailer offering diverse goods at fixed prices while using displays, advertising, and sales to make shopping a leisure activity

An economic and cultural pattern in which acquiring and using commercially produced goods became increasingly important to everyday life and personal identity

A London exhibition in the glass-and-iron Crystal Palace that displayed British machinery, manufactured goods, imperial products, and industrial dominance

The property-owning and educated middle class of merchants, industrialists, professionals, managers, and civil servants

The industrial working class whose members lacked sufficient productive property and therefore sold their labor for wages

Awareness among members of a class that they share interests and experiences distinct from those of other social groups

Worker-funded associations that provided limited assistance during sickness, unemployment, injury, or death

Worker organizations that used collective bargaining, strikes, and shared action to pursue better wages, hours, and working conditions

The middle-class ideal that men belonged in the public world of work and politics while women governed the private home and family

The bourgeois ideal assigning men to public work and politics and women to the private sphere of home, children, and morality

A family centered on parents and their dependent children rather than primarily on extended kin or household production

A model of marriage based more openly on affection and companionship, though economic considerations remained important

Employment of children for low wages in factories and mines, where long hours, dangerous conditions, and limited schooling prompted gradual legal restrictions

British laws that restricted the factory employment and working hours of children, women, and young people and introduced government inspection

British law that prohibited underground mine work by women and girls and by boys under ten

Profit-making activities such as tourism, resorts, theaters, music halls, exhibitions, bicycling, and spectator sports created for mass urban audiences

Ideology defending inherited monarchy, hierarchy, religion, and custom because imperfect human nature made revolutionary reconstruction dangerous

British author of Reflections on the Revolution in France who defended inherited institutions and gradual, historically grounded reform over revolution

Reactionary Catholic thinker who defended hereditary monarchy, papal authority, obedience, and the alliance of throne and altar

The 1814–1815 meeting that redrew Europe after Napoleon and restored dynasties, balance of power, and conservative great-power cooperation

Principle that hereditary dynasties displaced by Napoleon or revolution should be restored as the rightful governments

Arrangement of states and territories so that no single power could dominate Europe

Informal post-1815 system of great-power consultation and collective action to preserve the Vienna settlement, balance of power, and conservative order

Austrian statesman and architect of the post-1815 order who used diplomacy and repression against liberal and nationalist revolution

Agreement among Russia, Austria, and Prussia promoting Christian monarchical solidarity and symbolizing the conservative union of religion and autocracy

1819 measures that dissolved nationalist student societies and imposed censorship, university supervision, and political investigation across the German Confederation

Belief that a people sharing a common identity constituted a nation entitled to political expression, unity, or self-government

Ideology favoring constitutional limits, civil liberties, legal equality, and political representation against restored absolutism

British democratic ideology demanding sweeping parliamentary reform, universal male suffrage, and citizenship regardless of property

Continental democratic ideology seeking universal male suffrage and the replacement of monarchy with government by citizens

The 1819 attack by cavalry on a peaceful parliamentary reform meeting in Manchester, killing and injuring demonstrators and provoking national outrage

British law that redistributed parliamentary seats, eliminated many rotten boroughs, and extended voting rights to much of the middle class

British working-class movement based on the 1838 People’s Charter that demanded universal male suffrage and other democratic parliamentary reforms

The 1838 Chartist program demanding universal male suffrage, secret ballots, equal districts, annual Parliaments, paid members, and an end to property qualifications

British tariffs and restrictions on imported grain that kept food prices high for landowners until their repeal in 1846

Greek revolt against Ottoman rule that succeeded after British, French, and Russian intervention, exposing the Concert's selective treatment of nationalism

Failed 1825 uprising by Russian army officers seeking constitutional government, a republic, or an end to serfdom; Nicholas I suppressed it and intensified repression

Paris uprising in July 1830 that followed Charles X’s restrictive ordinances, forced his abdication, and placed Louis-Philippe on the throne

Europe-wide uprisings driven by economic crisis, political exclusion, nationalism, and demands for reform; most failed but weakened the conservative order and Concert of Europe

February uprising that overthrew Louis-Philippe and established the Second Republic, followed by class conflict, the June Days, and an eventual authoritarian reaction

June 1848 Paris workers’ uprising against the closure of the National Workshops, violently crushed by General Cavaignac’s forces

French regime established in February 1848 with universal male suffrage; class conflict weakened it before Louis-Napoleon’s 1851 coup ended republican government

Elected president of the Second Republic in 1848; he seized power in 1851 and founded the authoritarian Second Empire as Napoleon III in 1852

Elected 1848 German assembly that drafted a liberal constitution and sought national unification but collapsed without an army, revenue, or princely support

Russian tsar whose Great Reforms included emancipating the serfs and creating zemstvos before revolutionaries assassinated him in 1881

Alexander II’s decree legally freeing about 23 million privately owned serfs, though land shortages, communal control, and redemption payments preserved peasant hardship

Elected local councils established in 1864 to manage roads, schools, and public health, offering limited participation while remaining under tsarist authority

Russian radicals who looked to the peasantry as the basis of social transformation; after efforts to mobilize peasants failed, some turned to terrorism

Russian revolutionary organization whose members used terrorism and assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881

January 1905 massacre in which imperial troops fired on Georgy Gapon’s peaceful petitioners in St. Petersburg, triggering widespread revolutionary unrest

Mass unrest involving workers, peasants, liberals, national minorities, and mutineers that forced limited concessions but failed to end tsarist autocracy

Elected Russian legislature promised in 1905 but repeatedly dissolved or restricted by Nicholas II, leaving ministers and major state powers under tsarist control

Economic liberal policy favoring minimal government interference in exchange while the state protects property and public order

British thinker who developed utilitarianism and advocated reforming laws and institutions according to their social usefulness

Reform philosophy judging institutions by whether they produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number

Liberal thinker who defended individual liberty, representative government, expanded suffrage, and women’s legal and political equality

Early socialism seeking peaceful social transformation through ideal cooperative communities, education, reason, and example

Utopian socialist who wanted scientists, engineers, industrialists, and administrators to plan production for social benefit

Utopian socialist who proposed voluntary cooperative communities called phalansteries and criticized monotonous labor and women’s subordination

Welsh utopian socialist who improved workers’ conditions at New Lanark and attempted a cooperative community at New Harmony

Marx and Engels’s systematic theory that capitalism’s material contradictions and class struggle would produce proletarian revolution and socialism

Developer of scientific socialism who explained history through material conditions and class struggle, coauthored The Communist Manifesto, and wrote Capital

Marx’s collaborator and supporter who studied English workers’ conditions and coauthored The Communist Manifesto

Marx and Engels’s 1848 pamphlet arguing that class struggle drives history and calling on workers to overthrow capitalism

Marxist theory that material production and class relationships fundamentally shape institutions, ideas, and historical change

Marxist concept that conflict between classes with opposed economic interests drives historical change

Ideology seeking to abolish the state and coercive hierarchies and replace them with voluntary cooperation and decentralized associations

Revolutionary anarchist who demanded immediate destruction of the state and warned that a Marxist transitional state would become despotic

Permanent party with mass membership, local branches, funding, publications, platforms, and organizers that continuously mobilized voters and pursued reform

Marxist-influenced German workers’ party created by socialist unification in 1875, renamed the SPD in 1890, and the Reichstag’s largest party by 1912

Eduard Bernstein’s argument that capitalism was adapting and socialism could be achieved gradually through elections, unions, and legislation

British organization founded by unions and socialists in 1900 to secure working-class representation; renamed the Labour Party in 1906

Movement challenging women’s legal, economic, educational, and political subordination, including unequal property, marriage, employment, education, and voting rights

The movement seeking voting rights for women through both constitutional campaigning and militant tactics such as disruption, property damage, and hunger strikes

British feminist leader and WSPU cofounder who defended militant suffrage tactics after concluding that peaceful campaigning had failed

Militant British suffrage organization founded by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst in 1903 under the slogan “Deeds, not words.”

Humanitarian movement using petitions, testimony, publications, meetings, and boycotts to end slavery and the slave trade

British evangelical politician who led the parliamentary campaign that secured abolition of the British slave trade in 1807

Evangelical organization founded by William and Catherine Booth in London in 1865 that combined preaching with practical aid in poor urban districts

Later nineteenth-century liberalism holding that sanitation, education, and limited welfare could increase people’s practical capacity to exercise freedom

A state that protects citizens against poverty, illness, unemployment, disability, and old age through public services and social insurance

German sickness, accident, old-age, and disability insurance enacted in 1883–1889 to protect workers, build loyalty, and weaken socialism

British utilitarian administrator who promoted centralized sanitation, clean water, sewers, and waste removal as cheaper ways to prevent disease and poverty

British law that created a General Board of Health and permitted local health boards, though much local action remained optional

Napoleon III’s 1853–1870 rebuilding of Paris under Haussmann with boulevards, utilities, parks, and uniform buildings, modernizing the city while aiding state control and displacing poorer residents

Government action to combat urban disease through clean water, sewers, drainage, street cleaning, ventilation, and waste removal

Permanent, salaried, trained, and bureaucratically supervised forces using regular patrols to prevent crime, enforce regulations, and monitor disorder

Tax-supported required elementary schooling intended to promote public order, national identity, literacy, and economic productivity